Lexical and Grammatical Development of Children Summary..

Pre Verbal Stage

• The Cooing Stage: Occurs 8-20 weeks into the child's life, including sounds like "aaaaah".
• The Babbling Stage: Happens at the age of nine months, sounds like "ba,ba,ba,bbbb"
• Verbal Scribbling: Develops when the child is 30 weeks old. The child begins to use consonants, vowels and fricative, expanding their use of early vocabulary.
• Melodic Utterance: 9 to 18 months into the child's life, as they grow older, the sounds they utter begin to sound more recognizable as words.

Lexical and Grammatical Development of Children

Stage One: Holophrastic..

• The holophrastic, meaning the one word stage, occurs in children from 12-18 months. This is when the child utters their first word. They build a vocabulary of holophrases, which are single words used to convey meaning, this spans up to as much as 50 words. And the child will be able to understand ten times more words now, than before this stage. 
• Holophrases describe the meaning of a phrase or sentence through body language, intonation and volume ie; "doggy" and "gaga", these are examples of short words the child would begin to use, they relate to the child's everyday life. 

Stage 2: Two Phrase Words..

• Age - 18 months.
• The child begins to use two words at a time, Some call this stage 'The emergence of grammar', its now possible for the child to choose a word order, and for others to make simple grammatical analyses of the meanings of these sentences, 
• This usual consists of: a noun (object) -> and a verb (action).
• This allows the child to become more flexible with grammatical functions: "make bridge" "mommy sleep"
• The language of the child at this age relies heavily on context and a sympathetic listener, usually a parent. 
• The language at this age is not deficient or wanting, they are practicing language. 
• At 18 months, children have grasped a great deal of knowledge about language. 
• They have correct syntax, they use prepositions, possession words and pronouns. 

Stage 3: The Telegraphic Stage.. 

• Age: 2-2 1/2 years.
• The child begins to use sentences of up to four words in length.
• Sentences with gaps are used, non lexical words "and, but, if" as well as endings such as "ing" are often lost. 
• They begin to follow the structures of speech. Using question, statement and command sentences.

Stage 4: Post Telegraphic Stage..

• Age:36 months.
• More grammatically complex.
• Also, after this age, the child begins to develop necessary reading and writing skills with appropriate help. 
• After three years old, children's language advances in leaps and bounds. They begin to use: semantics, phonology, grammar and pragmatics. 

Speech.

Why exams aren’t a true representation of intelligence.

 

“Everybody is a genius but if you judge a fish on its ability to climb a tree, it will spend it’s whole life believing its stupid.” Albert Einstein.

 

For years of our lives we discuss the topics set by teachers in groups and learn through interaction, then at the end of the academic year we are forced to sit in silence and recite everything we’ve learnt that was crammed into a five minute revision session the night before. Exams are a test of memory which vary between ages and people. Revision techniques and teaching methods are not always applicable to everyone and this can affect how the subject is understood or approached by students leading them to believe they are not capable. An example of this is my current PE teacher who doesn’t believe in copying from texts books which I find helpful when I don’t understand something.

Many people struggle with nerves and the pressure put on during the exam period, stress levels burst through the roof as we are told we HAVE to meet target minimum grades of B’s, A’s and A*’s. The pressure of this alone can put off students, giving them a sense of impending doom. This shouldn’t be a true representation of intelligence, as many students struggle understanding the questions in the paper, because they are worded so complexly it causes confusion and losing marks.

The time period set for exams are often problematic for students when trying to gain over 100 marks in an hour, theoretically if we had an extra 5 minutes before an exam to revise could we get an A instead of a B, it could even be the difference between a pass and a fail. Its luck depending on the questions you receive and the topics you understand, exams don’t measure intelligence because you could explain your answer as fully as possible but miss one word meaning you don’t get any marks. The amount of revision we have to do means we have no social life and as the saying goes ‘youth is wasted on the young’ this implies that we have the capability to do things like travelling but no time or money to. The amount of information cannot possibly be retained or is even useful for working life; from personal experience I can tell you that I have never used Pythagoras’ Theorem or Hicks Law making it seem very useless.

To conclude, we feel that exams should be scrapped and education should be optional post 16.

 

Techniques Used:

• We used personal experiences in our speech "from personal experience I can tell you...", by using this it makes our speech more persuasive to the audience as it is more believable as we are able to back up our initial point with a valid reason.
•  We included alliterations: "always applicable", "students struggle" and "techniques and teaching".
• We included quotes and phrases, "youth is wasted on the young" "Everybody is a genius but if you judge a fish on its ability to climb a tree, it will spend it’s whole life believing its stupid.”
• We also included a variation of sentence types and a variation of adjectives.

Brown and Levinston's Face Theory and Grice's Maxims + Class Notes

Brown and Levinston's Face Theory.

The 'Politeness theory' accounts for the set of social rules. Formulated in 1978 by Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson who developed their  'face theory' based on the principles of our desire to be liked and not to be imposed up on.
Face is defined as the public self image every adult has, which is 'attended' to in interaction.
There are to aspects to face. Positive and negative.
The positive face is the desire to be appreciated and liked, and the negative face is the desire to have freedom and not to be imposed upon.
A Face Threatening Act (FTA) is an act which deliberately threatens the face needs of others.

In order to save face, we have the option to use 'politeness super strategies' : Positive politeness is showing you value someone so minimising the threat to the positive face, Off record is avoiding responsibility for the FTA often by being indirect.
Impoliteness is defined as engaging in aggressive face work in particular contexts to cause social disruption, can be done in various ways : Positive impoliteness is attacking the positive face need by not showing you value someone, Off Record is using indirect offence such as sarcasm or banter and Withhold is failing to be polite when it is expected.

Grice's Maxims.

1. The maxim of quantity - where one tries to be as informative as one possibly can, and gives as much information as is needed, and no more.

2. The maxim of quality - where one tries to be truthful, and does not give information this is false or that is not supported by evidence.

3. The maxim of relation - where one tries to be relevant, and says things that are pertinent to the discussion.

4. The maxim of manner - where one tries to be as clear, as brief, and as orderly as one cam in what one says, and where one avoids obscurity and ambiguity.

Grice's maxims say that when we communicate we assume, without realising it, that we and the people we are talking to will be conversationally co-operative, and will co-operate to achieve mutual conversational ends because we feel the need to abide by the maxims. The word maxim means rules.
We can break the conversational maxims in two main ways :
We can violate them, this means that we break the maxims, so that other people do not know. For example if the maxim of quality is violated, a lie has been told in the conversation.
 Or we can flout them, we break the maxim so that it is, obvious to all concerned that it has been broke.

Video link - Shawshank Redemption.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KtwXlIwozog

The video clip shows a small part from the Shawshank Redemption, the two participants of the conversation is between Morgan Freeman's character and the parole officer. In the beginning of the conversation, the Parole officer has the power as he directs him to sit down. He also shows he has power by leading the discourse and calling him by his full name and is leading the conversation on his terms. The parole officer has the maxim of quantity, as he says all that is necessary to the conversation and no more. The power shifts to Morgan Freeman's character, as he interrupts the parole officer and says 'I know what you think it means, sonny'. Morgan Freeman's character takes over the power as the parole officer backs down. Morgan Freeman's character shows the negative face as he wants freedom and no longer wants to be imposed upon.